13 Architects of the Modern World A Comparative Theory of Global Transition (1860–1979) Arif Jameel Independent Scholar | Reuters Certified Digital Journalist Lahore, Pakistan — Zenodo — https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.21221960 ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0009-9290-6195 Abstract This study proposes a new theoretical framework for understanding the formation of the modern international system between 1860 and 1979. It argues that this transitional period witnessed an extraordinary historical concentration of thirteen leaders whose interconnected decisions, ideologies, and unintended effects collectively reshaped global politics, economics, and institutions. Rather than attributing systemic change to a single war, empire, or power, the research frames these figures as links in a single historical chain—revolutionaries, empire-builders, state-founders, and transitional administrators—who, by implementing the ideas of renowned philosophers, economists, lawmakers, and thinkers, ...